Declan's blog

The total wars of the first half of the 20th century marked the apotheosis, or epitome, of traditional great power politics in international relations. “Total war” is warfare that knows no limits, that extends to all facets of a state’s affairs, including the economy, internal politics, industry, commerce, a state’s laws, and the welfare of its citizens. The causes of both WWI and WWII were characterized by nationalist aspirations to unify and consolidate the peoples of Europe through imperialist expansion, international power rivalries (arms races and economic competition), and complex webs of alliances which inextricably pitted groups of states against one another. The idea of the “nation” was of foremost importance for both citizens and governments. This context of international relations, with states as the key actor, defined and pitted unitary nations against each other in a bid for power and security in an inherently unstable and anarchic world system, characteristic of the balance-of-power tradition of great power politics. Self-preserving imperialism and fervent nationalism would twice in half a century create the context for global conflict, epitomizing the tentative and competitive nature of politics between great powers in the first half of the 20th century.

Traditional great power politics have long been dominated by states’ tendencies to expand and form rivalries, and this is evident in the total wars of the first half of the 20th century. As nationalist aspirations intensified, so to did attempts at expansion and therefore tensions between states heightened. In his article “Essay and Reflection: On Total War and Modern War,” Hew Strachan reiterates French scholar Leon Daudet’s 1918 definition of total war “as the extension of the struggle into the realms of politics, the economy, commerce, industry, intellectual life, the law, and finance” from his book La guerre totale. There were many different wars during the first half of the 20th century, including the Spanish civil war and the Bolshevik revolution, which we do not count today as being “total wars.” The concept of total warfare encapsulates the heart of great power politics, pitting states against states in the anarchic realm of international relations.
Traditional great power politics are defined by the primacy of the nation-state in global affairs and in its search of security of its territories and citizens. The realist tradition borne of the after-effects of WWII developed a paradigm to explain wars between states, and to identify the causes of the Total Wars of the first half of the 20th century. Realism in its different facets characterizes the international system as anarchic and one in which nation-states are in a constant struggle for relative power as a means to achieve security and self-preservation. The fervent nationalism and principles of self-determination of peoples developed in the 19th century made the idea of “nation” and its wealth and international status of primary importance for citizens and leaders at the beginning of the 20th century. The primacy of the state coupled with international rivalries to create competitive imperialism between European states over colonial possessions, trade, economic advantages and arms races (such as the naval race between Great Britain and Germany preceding WWI). Interstate competition fueled uncertainty for nations that foresaw possible future engagements in war, and resulted in a system of alliances between blocs of states as a means for self-preservation and security, but also creating the context for the chain-reaction, all-engulfing war that would result.
The most notable alliances formed during WWII were the axis and the allies or Germany, Japan and Italy, the axis, and Great Britain, the United States and the USSR, the allies. The latter alliance was born of war, each state joining the war at a different time, concerned for their own international security in the face of Germany’s expansion. Another notable alliance was formed early on in the 20th century, prior to WWI, between Great Britain, France and Russia. This alliance was known as the Triple Entente, and was opposed by the Triple Alliance of Germany, Italy, and the Austria-Hungary empire.

 Similar contexts to the creation of alliances in the face of preservation and security can be seen in the causes of WWII. Fervent nationalism of communist and fascist states led to a divide with democratic Europe and created a new system of alliances that pitted the two blocs against one another, and imperialism by Germany and Italy was justified by a national right to adjust for the grievances of the Treaty of Versailles. Twice within half a century, states were fueled by fervent nationalism, sought imperial ends across the globe and attempted to ensure their own security through alliance systems and, ultimately, war. This historic period provides the quintessential example of traditional great power politics in the realist paradigm.